This was an ethnography project done while completing my Master’s of Arts in Music Therapy at Saint Mary of the Woods College in Indiana.
Introduction
The Ojibwe/Anishinaabe (Chippewa) Native American tribe is the second largest tribe in the nation of the Upper Great Lakes Region. Today, there are seven Chippewa and Ojibwe reservations in Minnesota: Grand Portage, Bois Forte, Red Lake, White Earth, Leech Lake, Fond du Lac and Mille Lacs. These reservations were established through treaties and are regarded as individual nations by the US government. All except for Red Lake Reservation were allotted after the Dawes Act of 1887 (Schneider, 2000).
Native Americans live on and off reservations. An Indian reservation is land set aside, or reserved, for Indian people. There are 20 Ojibwe reservations in the United States.
Many of them are located near wild rice lakes and fishing areas that have always been important to the survival of the Ojibwe people (Arnold, 2004).
Ojibwas have always had a natural way of life. They used to solely live off the land. Wild rice was the staple of their diets. It’s native to the lakes on the US-Canada border, in particular Minnesota and Wisconsin, and is traditionally hand-harvested in canoes by the Ojibwe (Chippewa) people.
Ojibwas believe that supporting and honoring one another is vital. It’s important to know their original language as it is closely linked with spirituality. The language, ceremonies and teachings are important to keep in order to pass the sacred way on to future generations. Schneider (2000) states, “Many people strive hard to teach Ojibwe language and customs to the children and young people, but it is a constant struggle.” Ojibwe communities have long respected the role of elders and spiritual leaders to pass knowledge to younger generations. Obtaining knowledge and therefore, education, means one is connected to the mind, body and spirit. It is a basic idea in the foundation of family and education in Ojibwe traditional life. The drum has traditionally been a symbol for the circle of life in the Ojibwe way of life.
Music is sacred in the Native American philosophy. They believe the drum brings people together. It delivers peace. People are reflective when the drum is played. They are taught to love and respect each other. The drumbeat is felt deep within, like a heartbeat. Native American music is the original folk music of America.
Creation Story
According to Benton-Banai (1988), when the earth was young, earth had a family, the moon and sun. The Creator of the family is Gitchie Manito, the Great Mystery or Creator. This is the Ojibwe’s story of creation. The Earth is female because she preceded everything else. That is why they call it Mother Earth. Water is considered the lifeblood.
There are four sacred directions, north, south, east and west. It is believed that birds are Earth’s singers to carry seeds to all of the directions. The Creator took the four parts of the Earth and blew into them using a sacred shell. The union of the four sacred elements and his breath, man was then created. From this man came the Anishinabe people. The Creator lived in harmony with all around it. Ojibwe people cherish the Megis shell and consider it sacred because the Creator blew through it.
Man eventually married the Fire Keeper’s daughter. He became full of joy when he seen her. The most important thing to the Anishinabe was the feeling of respect. Each of their sons became keepers of each of the four sacred directions.
Symbols
In the Ojibwe tradition, emblems, directions, colors, and flowers are all symbolic to the Ojibwe way of life. TheOjibwe emblem is a picture of a circle with a cross in the middle dividing the circle evenly. Each quadrant has a color; white, blue, yellow, and red with a feather hanging from the side of the circle. This emblem represents the four directions. It represents that four parts make up the whole. The four parts include: physical, emotional, spiritual, and mental. The Ojibwe people strive for health and balance in maintaining a good life (WDSE, 2002).
The first direction or symbol represents sweet grass, and it’s a reminder to be gentle. The second direction/symbol represents the forest/tree, and it is a reminder to be truthful. Third direction or instruction is the deer. It is there to remind everyone to share. The fourth direction is the stone or the grandfather, and it represents strength. If we are gentle, truthful, and share with others, then we can be strong and can stay on the path of health. If someone is out of balance, it means one of the four parts is out of balance (WDSE, 2002). Health is there through relations, friends, ceremonies, food and nutrition. In the past, Ojibwe use to eat very healthy from the earth, and they were very active.
Things on earth are represented through colors for the Ojibwe people. Blue represents the sky, and red symbolizes the eai1h. The Ojibwe represent life ai1d strength through the use of floral patterns and these colors of the earth.
In the celebration of powwows, the dancers paint their faces. The colors of the face paint all represent certain things in the Ojibwe way of life. Red symbolizes humbleness because the side of the heart is red. Our heart makes us humble. When applying make-up for dances, red paint is put on the left side of the face because of the placement of our heart. Face paint is designed to gain the attention of the spirits. The warriors want the spirits to watch them (Smithsonian, 1994).
Dreams
Dreams are important to all Native Americans; they show them who they are in regards to their names, costumes, and purpose in life. In the old clays, the Indians didn’t have education, so wisdom came from dreams. It was customary to teach children to be aware of their dreams from a young age. Fasting, isolation, and mediation were the principal conditions under which such a dream might be secured (Densmore, 1979).
According to Densmore (1979), there is a custom boys undergo around the time of puberty where his father takes him far from camp to secure a dream or vision for his life. Fasting and blackening his face with charcoal is part of the preparation.
Costumes for powwows are chosen through individual reasons. Some are passed down through family members. Pictures of ancestors’ costumes are copied, and some build their costumes piece by piece to construct the image they want. Dreams are meaningful to Native Americans and some dream of the costume they are to wear (Smithsonian, 1994).
Animals
According to Benton-Banai (1988), just as in the Bible, after naming all the animals, the Ojibwe man noticed all the animals were in pairs, yet he was alone. In the Ojibwe stories, the Creator sent man a wolf The Creator told man to walk the Earth together. After this, He told man and wolf to go their separate ways, and that what
happens to one of them will also happen to the other. So, they went their separate ways. To this day, since dogs are part of the wolf family, dogs are never allowed around Indian ceremonies. Animals represent different sources of power for the Ojibwe people.
The Bear Power of the North is the guardian of secrets to the many diseases that can be cured. A sign of the strength of the bear power is shown in the northern lights. When they are visible, the bear power is at it’s highest (Benton-Banai, 1988).
Next I will share an Ojibwe story I learned about the origin of the rainbow. The story is called, “How the Rainbow Came to Be” adapted from the Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council (2003).
A long time ago, when the first Native Americans were put on this earth, it was a peaceful and land was plentiful. At that time, the natives could talk with the birds, animals, plants and flowers. One day a native girl was playing in the meadow with some of her birds and animal friends. The began talking about the “Life Giver”, “Great Spirit”, and “”Grand-father” who gave them life. She explained that when they die, they go to a beautiful place called the “Happy Hunting” ground. At that time, she noticed the flowers drooped their heads in sadness. When she asked why, they stated, “No place has been prepared for us to go when we die.” So the girl spoke with the “Great Spirit”. The “Great Spirit” provided a place for the flowers: and that is why we have a rainbow today. Then the pretty flowers die, their place in the rainbow is what makes the beautiful colors that we see.
Tobacco
Prior to any ceremony, an offering of tobacco is given to the Creator. During the powwow, a fire burns and people come by to put tobacco or cedar in as an offering. All Native American tribes perform this tradition. According to Johnston (1982) tobacco was given in reverence and holiness to soothe the Kitche Manitou, and to acknowledge the presence. There is a story about the origin of the use of tobacco offerings.
The origin of the use of tobacco offerings began with two young men who went out into the mountains searching for thunderbirds. They fasted for nine days prior to the adventure. On the ninth day, they heard chanting coming from a mountain. They heard, “Who dares without tobacco? Who dares without offering? Tobacco will allay our anger. Tobacco will clear the cloud.” From that time on, they have always offered tobacco to appease the Great Spirit.
Powwows
Powwows are a special time for Native Americans. It’s like a home away from home for them. While at the powwow, they camp outside like their ancestors. Indians come from all over to attend the powwows. Young and old people participate in the dances, songs, and the appreciation for the tribal heritage and culture. It’s a time for passing down traditions from generation to generation.
At the powwows, a Ceremonial Light is lite before the powwow begins, and it remains lite for four days and four nights throughout the powwow. The fire is lite with flint and steel to ensure a strong fire. Paper, cigarette butts, or garbage is not allowed in this fire, as it will contaminate it. The “Fire Keeper” camps near it throughout the four days of the powwow, and is not allowed to leave until the fire is out (Smithsonian, 1996).
During my personal experience at the St. Croix Chippewa 32nd Annual Wild Rice Powwow in Danbury Wisconsin (Montgomery, 2005) (see Video in Appendix A). This powwow was to celebrate the harvest of wild rice and take the opportunity to thanks Mother Earth. The powwow was an amazing scene it was colorful and visually stimulating. Makes you feel like you were there, back in the old days. People at the powwow were so dedicated to their cultural heritage. What I also seen at the powwow was the Ojibwe expression respect for their elders. An example of this was when the MC reminded the crowd to treat elders with respect by allowing them to go through the food line first so they could rest. Each costume was so intriguing. The music was entraining. The drumbeats were repetitive. The singers made you feel like dancing along with the crowd. The children appeared to love being involved and learning about their heritage, too. All the family members helped to teach the children. There were children dancing, and little boys learning how to drum and sing.
The MC for the day made mention of the corruption that has taken place within Indian culture with alcohol and sugar (causing diabetes). He jokingly went on to say they got revenge of the white people by building casinos in order to take their money.
Powwow Grand Entry
The Grand Entry into the powwow designates the beginning. An eagle staff is always first (Smithsonian, 1996). During the Invocation, the asking of a blessing from the Creator is lifted up from the people in the Ojibwe language. The flags are then set up erect for display. The first flag out symbolizes this part of the world. Other flags include the US flag, the Canadian flag, and a Veterans’ flag. The dancers proceed into the arena in groups of dancers. The first group is the Men’s Traditional Dancers. The following groups include: Grass Dancers, Women’s Traditional Dancers, Jingle Dress Dancers, Fancy Dancers, and the Shawl Dancers. They are all displayed with such brilliant of colors. It is a visually mesmerizing sight to watch the procession. When they finish dancing, they feel good; mind and body. There are many different kinds of dancers and costumes, and each dancer has their own story as to how and why they acquired their costume.
At a powwow, the bells, jingles, and rattles that come from the costumes or singers call the spirits. These sounds are vital for calling spirits for the Ojibwe people. They believe in it strongly. The elders even tell the young not to whistle at night because they don’t know what kind of spirits they might call (Smithsonian, 1994).
Eagle feathers are used in the costumes. The eagle is very sacred to Native Americans who, by low, are the only ones who can acquire an eagle feather. According to Native American tradition, a dropped feather is never to be photographed and a special ceremony must be held before it can be picked up (Great Lakes Inter-Tribal, Inc., 2003). They are very careful about feathers. They have to earn their feathers. It’s honorable to have an eagle feather (Smithsonian, 1996).
Powwow Dancers
The sound of the singing, drumming and dancing calls the spirits. Dancers call the spirits to help lift their inner spirit. The dancers become engulfed by the feeling the experience brings. The spirit goes in them during dancing and lifts them up (Smithsonian, 1996). Some state it feels like a high.
- There are many different types of dancers. There are men’s traditional dancers, women’s traditional, grass dancers, jingle dress dancers, fancy dancers, and shawl dancers. All of these dancers can be seen on my powwow experience video (Appendix A). The following descriptions of dancers are from the Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council (2004). The men’s traditional dancers make motions like they are animals sneaking up on prey or warriors creeping up on the enemy. The women’s traditional dance is slow and purposeful. A shawl is worn draped over the arm and the dancers often hold a fan made of feathers as they bounce gently to the beat of the drum. The grass dancers wear clothing decorated with colorful long fringe that resembles field grass blowing in the wind as dancers move. The jingle dress dancers decorate their clothing with many cone shaped metal jingles that present a pleasant rhythm that mingles with the beat of the drum.
The Smithsonian Institute (1996) discusses the circle as the place of worship. The singers learn from an early age. The songs performed come from many places. Members of the groups compose many of their own songs. Other groups also give them songs. All different kinds of intertribal powwow songs are passed down through the generations.
Singing keeps the language alive through the generations by way of song. When a song is really good, people sing around the circle. Groups are typically made up of men, but women sing too. Women are allowed to sing. They usually stand on the outer part of the circle because women are not allowed to drum. The drum represents the heartbeat. The heartbeat of the Ojibwa is extends outward to other members in need.
During a powwow, if someone or a family has a special need due to an illness or other trauma in the family, a blanket is laid on the ground and people walk by and throw money on it for the family in need. This is their way of helping each other and supporting one another in need.
Sweat lodges
A sweat lodge is also known as a purification ceremony. The AIM Peacemaker Center in Minneapolis, MN describe these ceremonies as conducted by elder spiritual leaders to help strengthen youth spiritually and culturally, stressing the importance of an alcohol/drug-free lifestyle. According to Johnston (1982), purification lodges or sweat lodges were meant to help them develop physical endurance to hunger and thirst, to withstand the demands of the flesh for relief, and to vanquish pain. Mentally, the sweat lodge purified them in areas of lust and selfishness, to subdue the ravages of the passions, and for overall well-being. Only after they were completely purified could they begin the ceremony to commune with the spirits.
Weddings
There are many clans within the Ojibwe tribe. They are not allowed to marry within their own clan. At weddings, everyone in the village is invited. Before the marriage, there is a courting stage. When a young man approaches a young woman late at night, the mother and grandmother would get up to stir the fire bright. The young man would play the “courting flute”, but the young woman was not allowed to respond at that time to the flute. Appendix C is an example of a flute song usually played or hummed by young men serenading their sweethearts. It’s called, “Flute Song” by Densmore (1913), (as cited in Bierhorst, 1974).
The Ojibwe consider their spouse a companion for their life to walk with and be with through all aspects of life. The bond of marriage is considered the strongest of bonds. Johnson (1982), explains that at the marriage ceremony, an elder, sometimes the grandmother tells stories of wisdom that include the need for loyalty, prudence, judgment, acceptance, and kindness within the maniage. She then sews the hem of the bride and groom’s coats together symbolizing their new life as one. She continues with ritualistic words in the native language, as from Johnston (1982), “You will share the same language. You will hang your garments together. You will help one another. You will walk the same trail. You will look after each other. Be kind to one another. Be kind to your children.” Afterwards, they have a feast and play games.
Death
Death represents a journey to a new life. When they become old they begin to prepare themselves for death (Fichter, 1978). To Native Americans, dying with dignity is important. It is sad when one dies and the family mourns, but they are also glad that the family member didn’t suffer if they died in battle as a warrior. Chanting is performed at the bedside of the dying. The chanting helps to lead the person into the spirit world. In the Ojibwe culture, the preparation of the dying person is significant to the journey into the next world. According to Densmore (1979), as soon as a person died they are washed, hair braided, and best clothing put on along with beadwork. Items that were valued in life are placed with the dead person. They gather possessions; weapons, pipe, tobacco, blanket, flint, tinder, birch bark container, and a wooden bowl and spoon. The person would need this on their long journey to the Land of Souls along the Path of Souls (Johnston, 1982). Sometimes warrior face paint was applied as it was on the War Path.
They believe the spirit of the dead lingers around the body for some time. The person is to be buried with their feet toward the west, as that is the direction of their journey. Food is placed at the grave and family members are allowed to take the food.
The Land of Souls is a place of peace. There is no sickness, hunger, sorrow, anger or envy there. The presence of comfort, peace, and joy is ever-present. To be given the gift of passage into the Land of Souls, one must lead good lives-follow the Path of Life (Johnston, I982). The Path of Life will bring good fortune, good health, and place of heart in this world. Along with that it is vital to honor the “Great Spirit” and other people. This will bring about happiness in one’s life. Keeping promises and pledges, being kind to everyone, achieving peace and courage, and not overindulging in dreams, thoughts, words, and deeds. These are the requirements for admission into the Land of Souls.
Many Ojibwa have traveled the Path of Souls and returned to tell of their journeys (Johnston, 1982). They say the Path of Souls brings tests, so they encourage one another to be strong and not weaken.
Government
In the video, “Ojibwe-Waasa Inaabidaa” (WDSE, 2002), it explains that the Native Americans are self-governed. Each clan has a responsibility. The Bear clan maintains order among all the Ojibwe. The Martin clan settles disputes. If someone is unable to settle a dispute, the warriors of the Martin clan will settle it. Women in the clan are considered the true peacemakers. Each clan has head representative, one man and one woman. Decisions are made through the consensus. Elders are highly respected and held in the highest regard. When someone wants advice or direction, they are to offer tobacco and ask the elder to teach them. Decisions made are based on the impact they will make on the future generations.
Assimilation
Long ago, rules were implemented against all the Ojibwe traditions; religion, ceremonies, medicine and healing methods (WDSE, 2002). The medicine people had to practice underground. Due to the depression that came upon the Indians, they started drinking. The Federal government targeted Indian children to strip them of their Native ways; language and appearance. They were sent to boarding schools and were beaten, shamed. Many children died. Traders agreed to provide healthcare as part of the government to pay for the land.
The health of the Indians was declined severely in the 1800’s. The Europeans discounted Indian medicines. Treaties blocked them from accessing food and medicine sources on their land. These treaty commodities replaced the healthy Ojibwe diets. Wild rice is very healthy and they were no longer able to grow and harvest it. They were displaced from their lands to other unknown areas. European culture had pushed them to reservations where they were not meant to survive. They were given restrictions on gathering essentials such as birch bark and hunting.
When the fur traders came in, they were dependent on the Indians for many needs, clothing, bark, food, and medicines. Unfortunately, they also brought diseases; malaria, measles, smallpox, scurvy. Indian medicinal roots and herbs couldn’t fight these new diseases. Fifty percent of the Ojibwe tribe was killed. There were massive deaths, 3-4 children died each day.
Then, the infiltration of alcohol, guns, and traps were brought into the tribes through the fur traders. Traders used alcohol to manipulate the Indians. It would be used to put them in debt to the fur traders, alter their behaviors prior to treaties being signed.
Alcohol was devastating to the Ojibwe tribes. Alcohol brought out negative thoughts and actions. They became powerless over it, and frustrations and resentments grew.
Children had to be sent away to Tuberculosis units for months at a time for recovery and sometimes death. It was an extremely traumatic experience for the children. Many died from the illnesses that could have been cured, such as pneumonia, due to such rural areas. Life expectancies for Indian population were 50% less than the general public (WDSE, 2002). In 1924 the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was established by Congress.
Indian Government
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) is an agency of the Department of the Interior charged with the supervision of Indian reservations (McAllester, 1982). Indians have United States citizenship as individuals, and they have Nationhood as Native Americans. Nationhood is first and foremost as a separate government. They are a sovereign entity within the United States.
Social organizations such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) created the American Indian Movement Grand Governing Council reports the American ‘Indian Movement (AIM) began in 1971 to bring a time of change for the Native Americans. It was started in Minnesota and has affected Native Americans all across the nation.
Through AIM, they became more aware of their rights. During the 1983 Voigt Decision, they were allowed to live within their rights. Clyde H. Bellecourt, Executive Director of the Elaine M. Stately Peacemaker Center is quoted saying, “We don’t have a choice about paying attention to the needs of our young people. They are our tomorrow. Today we have a responsibility to give them what each and every one of them deserves, a good life, a strong body, and understanding of what it really means to be Indian.”
Current structure of Indian government
Currently, each band holds their own elections and makes decisions. Indian court system is run well. They have compact agreements with the counties. They oversee areas of traffic, family, child support and other areas. During a court proceeding, the peacemakers pray first, then talk. The individual in court can choose peacemaking or a trial. During peacemaking they are held accountable for their actions and decisions made there. Peacemaking is only offered in the tribal court system. One of the peacemaking techniques is the talking circle.
Talking circles are small group activities intended to facilitate sharing and healing. It is a holistic healing approach to wellness based on accountability, restitution, and reconciliation, for the purpose of restoring balance in the lives of people that have been affected. The circle is a powerful symbol in Native American culture signifying the Native American worldview that everything is connected. Talking circles are a means to discuss subjects of importance and to pass knowledge to others. They are utilized for peacemaking and healing instead of punishment. It becomes a victim driven process that promotes healing. It’s through the process of the talking circle that the knowledge and healing occurs.
The St. Croix Tribe and its governing body have made enormous strides in improving the quality of life for the reservation residents and surrounding communities. The tribe is devoted to the achievement of economic and social self-determination (Great Lakes Inter Tribal Council Inc., 2003).
Music
Traditional Native American music is almost entirely vocal, mono-linear, and is usually accompanied by drum, rattle, or both. It has unique qualities in instrumentation, speech, and rhythm.
Curtis (1950), states there is one characteristic peculiarity of Native American song that is almost universal. It’s the rhythn1ic pulsation of the voice on sustained notes. Some music has a mysterious quality with entrainment effect (Fichter, 1978). The instrumentation of the music is used only as an accompaniment or background for singing. It doesn’t match the rhythm of the song. Sometimes the music is melodic, as in the case of playing the flute.
Musical Instruments
The flute is associated with love. Because it’s a wind instrument, it sounds like the wind. It is a mournful instrument. The flute is symbolic of a woman in mourning. Women’s love songs are about farewell or loneliness. They are very beautiful songs. According to Benton-Banai (2000), a young woman was mourning the death of her husband. Her sadness was born of the wind through the flute. The spirit of the wind comes from the sound of the flute.
According to Titon (2002), R. Carlos Nakai, is the musician who brought flute music into worldwide popularity. He is a Navajo Indian. His music stresses respect for the environment. He as recorded many CD’s and designed a method of playing the Native American flute which can be found in “The Art of the Native American Flute” (Nakai & Demars, 1996). Eagle whistle is a small whistle with great meaning. It is only to be played in all seriousness. There are strict rules about playing the eagle whistle (Fichter, 1978).
The creation story has a sound of a shaker (Benton-Banai, 2000). The shaker is an important part of their culture. It is not to be confused with rattles, which are a different instrument. They give babies a small shaker to begin shaking and intermediate sized shaker for bigger children. The shaker is meant to keep the rhythm and accompany the drum and voices. It is the first instrument of the Ojibwe people. It is sometimes held in conjunction with the drum mallet on a hand drum to add texture and accompaniment to the sound.
The drum is an important and integral part of the heartbeat of the Ojibwe people. There are different types of drums that are used in ceremonies. The big drum, the hand drum, and the water drum. The big drum uses a mallet called a beater, which resembles a cattail. The drum frame is made of hollowed sections oflarge trees. The drum is place over a pit in the ground to help amplify the sound (Fichter, 1978). The big drum is the timekeeper. The hand drum is one-sided. It is held to control the pitch and timbre with pressure on the backside. The water drum is the original drum of all drwns. The construction of it is symbolic of the Earth. The wood is made from trees. The covering is from deer pelt, and it represents peace. The water in the drum is the water that is necessary for life (Benton-Banai, 2000). Along with the drum and shaker. The most common rattles are made of dried gourds filled with pebbles. Some are strapped to the dancer’s leg just below the knee (Fichter, 1978). These adjunct instruments are used in accompaniment to the voice or melodic instruments when songs are performed.
Songs with Purpose
Ojibwe songs have meaning and purpose of making a better, happier, or healthier life for themselves and their people. Many Native American songs are sacred to certain occasions or ceremonies. Some songs are so sacred that they shouldn’t be performed other than the proper time (Curtis, 1950). All of the songs have a purpose. Songs are sung to the spirits, for giving thanks, or asking for help (Fichter, 1978). They mark important steps in people’s lives.
Nakai & Demars (1996), discuss the nature of sacred and ceremonial songs. A solo chanter or small group usually performs them with vocalists and percussion instruments. Many tribes have limited means to store and retrieve their extensive histories and traditions; they rely upon song, story and dance to remember historical traditions.
Songs are made and played for a specific purpose and special meaning. Songs originate for many through dreams and visions. People make some songs from their thoughts (Fichter, 1978). According to Bierhorst (1979), singing in the traditional Native American style is much different than Western style singing that requires an open throat, relaxed and fully open. This type of singing is in the throat. There is a vibration in the throat and the tone is heavier and darker. The tone comes out with a rapid or slow pulsing, producing with the voice a kind of drumbeat effect on long notes. All Native American songs are sung in this manner. It is unique to Indians and is very difficult, but Native Americans are quite able to master this style of singing. Women rarely sing in the throat because it’s not considered feminine. Women sing with a squawking nasal tone in imitation of the flageolet, an ancient French whistle.
Song poetry
According to Curtis (1950), the English version of Native American songs are not given justice to the poetry when there is given only a bare and literal translation of the symbolic word instead of the full expression of the meaning. It takes many more words to explain what the Native American songs speak of. Native American songs use meaningless sounds like hi ya ya ya or ho ho se ho (Hofman, 1967). They are used to fill out the remainder of the rhythm of the song just like in Western music with the use of tra la la la or fa la la la. In song poetry, one or two words can bring about the image of an entire story.
Here’s an example of song poetry for young children. They would paint their faces with dandelion yellow. As they danced and sang, they viewed themselves as ducklings following their mother’s tail, and full of joy. Their parents were their view of the world and guidance. It’s called “Dandelion Song” from Jones & Jones (1995):
“I dance in Spring Wind. I connect to Earth. I open to Sun. I reach out for Sky. I stand now as One. I dance in Spring Wind. All is here for me to grow. I remember you before me. I dream of soft flight. I move with the day. I sleep with the night. All is here for me to grow. I dance in Spring Wind. I wonder where I end. I wonder where I start. I am circled with my scent. I belong and I am part. I dance in Spring Wind.”
Songs were sung to make work lighter as they brought joy and thanks for their food. A sacred song called, “What is this I promise you?” written by Densmore (1913) (as cited in Bierhorst, 1974), promises happiness and long life to the young Chippewa who devotes himself to the religion of his ancestors (Appendix D).
The medicine man uses songs in his practices of curing the sick. They carry a small bag with a collection of herbs, roots and other objects that are revealed to them in dreams or visions. Rituals and songs accompany the healing treatment. Music plays a large role in these ceremonies. Drums and rattles are shaken while songs call on the spirits to bring healing to the sick person. This process continues until the person recovers or dies (Fichter, 1978).
Changes Native American Music
The Native American culture is changing so rapidly. It is sharing cultures and adopting new technologies from Euro-American (Titon, 2002).
In the old view, they did not see a need to preserve their music or ceremonies due to the sacred content, but after 300 years of resistance, they are now teaching the Anglo world a new perspective (McAllester, 1982).
New kinds of songs showing the influence of Anglo culture began to appear in the Indian repertory some thirty to forty years ago (McAllester, 1982). Some songs are variations of the traditional songs.
Therapeutic Application of Native American Music
The past, present and future life of the Native American tribes is forever changing, but there are still some who desire to keep the old traditions alive. This is evident in the powwow celebrations. We can see the young children being taught the ways of dancing, drumming, and singing of their ancestors. There is a window of opportunity for music therapists to meet Native Americans in their own culture. This can come about through understanding, respecting, and offering traditional Ojibwe music to support their ceremonious rituals. They have long been using music in their healing rituals.
Native American music can create a wonderfully peaceful presence when there is a need for a quiet, contemplative atmosphere. Instrumentation can be a cedar flute, rain stick, buffalo drum, and shakers. To add a bit of present day Native American sound, I would add the sounds of a synthesizer. Vocals or no vocals, but if sung, usually a chant is used. This type of setting can be used for patients in hospice, cancer care, and cardiac. Their symptoms may range from anxiety, restlessness, fearful, to spiritual suffering. Music from this culture can help them to be more accepting of music therapy because of the awe factor that the music therapist understands their traditional music.
Flutes can also provide a source of rehabilitation and a sense of accomplishment. The mechanics of taking a deep breath and using controlled exhalations to blow through the flute helps with problems in the lungs. The by-product of using the flute therapeutically is that the patient learns how to play an instrument! When a patient has always seen him or herself as non-musical, and learns how to play the Native American flute, it is truly an accomplishment. The flute is a simple instrument that can be easily adapted for varying levels by taping off the holes on the flute. There are different sizes and sounds to accommodate patient preferences to lower or higher tones.
The drum is a seen as the heartbeat of the community. It can bring families and friends together. Drumming creates a sense of community and belonging. Drum circles are quickly catching on throughout the world spreading the news of wellness and using the qualities of the drum for entrainment to assist with many needs. Music therapists are encouraging Native Americans and many others to use the drum as a tool of self expression, sharing and contributing to the whole. Simultaneously, they adhere to the need to keep the drum sacred by respecting the sacredness of the drum in the Native American culture.
When working with Ojibwe Native Americans, it is wise to have an understanding of the history and customs of the Ojibwe. It is unethical to treat a patient with techniques whom a music therapist doesn’t have prior knowledge of customs, rituals, and gender boundaries.
In first meeting with a Native American, one might ask “What nourishes your spirit?” instead of “What church do you go to?” (O’Connor, 1988). This is a better way to approach a spirituality assessment task since their spirituality is in things of the earth and living beings. It is very important to approach with a heart of respect for their customs. They need to understand that you respect and understand their customs and traditions. In my experience, they are usually honored when they find out you have studied their traditions and want to offer what you have learned.
Native Americans have much to offer us in ways of medicine and healing. Their ways of living were very natural prior to the European invasion on their heritage. It is a shame that so many of them died so long ago from Tuberculosis, other diseases and murder. They truly are part of the American fabric and we should embrace and respect all that they represent to America. When they are in need of help, I am glad I have had the opportunity to learn from them.
Appendix B
Log of Hours for Native American Ethnography Project
August 27, 2005 1:00-3:30pm
Attended:
32nd St. Croix Chippewa Annual Wild Rice Powwow in Danbury Wisconsin
September 1, 2005 4:30-6:30pm
Viewed:
“Wisconsin Powwow Naamikaaged, Dancer for the People, Vol. l”
September 2, 2005 4:30-5:30pm
Viewed:
“Wisconsin Powwow, Vol. 2” Red Cliff Reservation Wild Rice Powwow “Honor the Earth Powwow”
September 17, 2005 5:00-7:00pm
Viewed:
“Ojibwe-Waasa Inaabidaa (We look in all directions)” WDSE-TV (2002). September 18, 2005 5:00-6:30pm
Listened to:
Black Lodge Singers, (1999). “Black Lodge Singers-Tribute to the Elders” [CD]. Phoenix, AZ: Canyon Records
Nakai, C.R. (2002). Fourth World [CD]. Phoenix, AZ: Canyon Records. September 25, 2005 7:00-9:00pm
Listened to:
Nakai, C.R. (2003). Sanctuary [CD]. Phoenix, AZ: Canyon Records.
Nakai, C.R. Demars, J. (1996). The art of the Native American flute. [CD]. Phoenix, AZ: Canyon Records.
References
American Indian Movement Grand Governing Council, Retreived October 20, 2005 from
http://www.aimovement.org/ggc/index.html online webpage.
Benton-Banai, E. (1988). The Mishomis Book. Red School House, Indian Country Communications, Inc; Hayward, WI.
Benton-Banai, E. (2000). Ojibwe Music. (video], Wisconsin Public Television.
Bierhorst, J., Servello, J. (1974). Songs of the Chippewa. Farrar, Straus and Giroux; New York, NY.
Black Lodge Singers (1999). Tribute to the elders (CD]. Phoenix, AZ.
Blackwolf, J., Jones, G. (1995). Listen to the.drum. Commune-A-Key Publishing, Salt Lake City, UT.
Curtis, N. (1950). The Indian’s book-songs and legends of the American Indians. Dover Publications, Inc; New York, NY.
Densmore, F. (1979). Chippewa customs. Mim1esota Historical Society Press, St. Paul, MN.
Fichter, G. (1978). American Indian music and musical instruments. David McKay Company, Inc. New York, NY.
Fortier, J. (Producer), Norrgard, L. (Director). (2002). We look in all directions, Ojibwe–Waasa Inaabidaa; WDSE-TV.
Hofmann, C. (1967). American Indians sing. John Day Company Inc. New York, NY.
Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council, Inc. (2004). Native Wisconsin. Lac du Flambeau, WI.
Johnston, B. (1990). Ojibway Ceremonies. McClelland and Stewart, University of Nebraska Press.
Jones, B & Jones, G. (1995). Listen to the drum. Commune-a-Key Publishing, Salt Lake City, UT.
Laubin, G. and R. (1977). Indian dances of North America their importance to Indian life. University of Oklahoma Press.
McAllester, D. P. (1982). New perspectives in Native American music. Perspectives of New Music, 20, (1-2), 433-446.
Montgomery, J. (2005) Personal experience.
Morrison, E. (2002). A little history of my forest life. Ladyslipper Press. Tustin, MI. Nakai, C.R. (2002). Fourth World [CD]. Phoenix, AZ: Canyon Records.
Nakai, C. R. (2003). Sanctuary [CD]. Phoenix, AZ: Canyon Records.
Nakai, C.R., Demars, J. (1996). The art of the Native American flute. Canyon Records Productions; Phoenix, AZ.
O’Connor, P. (1988). Spiritual elements of hospice care. American Journal of Hospice Care, 2, (2), 99-108.
Ross, R. (1992). Dancing with a ghost: exploring Indian reality. Reed Books Canada. Markham, Ontario.
Schneider, K. (2000). The culture and language of the Ojibwe: An introduction.
Retrieved November 4, 2005 from
http://home.hetnet.nl/~cvkolmes/ojibwe/NASojib.htm online webpage.
Smithsonian Institution (Producer). (1996). Wisconsin Powwow Naamikaaged, Dancer for the People, Vol. 1, Smithsonian Folkway Productions.
Smithsonian Institution (Producer). (1994). Wisconsin Powwow Red Cliff Reservation, Wild Rice Powwow Honor the Earth, Vol. 2, Smithsonian Folkway Productions.
St. Arnold, H.J. (2004). Ojibwe Treaty Rights Understand & Impact. Great Lakes Indian
Fish & Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC), Odanah, WI.
Titon, J. T. (2002). North America/Native America. In Worlds of Music (pp. 80-85).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group.